The education protests in France began in late September, a week after the start of the school year. Protests soon also began springing up in Portugal and Belgium.

In France, demonstrations reached a high point on Saturday as about half a million people turned out to protest against the surging cost of living and join the students demanding better conditions at their schools. That day there were also marches in Belgium, Portugal and Italy.

In Albania, protests have been taking place since the summer, triggered by a luxury coastal development backed by Donald Trump’s son-in-law Jared Kushner.

In France, the government has said it will deploy 3,000 more substitute teachers to deal with shortages, and include students in decision-making for schools. It also scrapped plans to increase some university registration fees, which it had announced for next year’s budget.

Fuel protests in mid-September led to an announcement by the Élysée that the government would increase petrol subsidies for certain industries.

Spain’s Socialist prime minister, Pedro Sánchez, attempted to pass emergency housing legislation that included a ban on evictions until 2030 and the regulation of temporary lettings and lettings by room.

The legislation’s defeat at the hands of rightwing and far-right parties in parliament led Sánchez to call a snap election for 29 November, as he told the public he needed a “broader progressive majority” to get new reforms through.

In recent days, the protests have been eclipsed by the violence that played out on the fringes. On Sunday night Macron said it was “unbearable to see our streets ransacked” while, hours later, France’s prime minister, Sébastien Lecornu, called for “very limited” and “localised” curfews.

Macron said a distinction must be drawn between what he described as genuine, peaceful demonstrators who were making demands over the cost of living and the education system, and others who “destroy, ransack and loot”.

His interior minister, Laurent Nuñez, appeared to signal the French government was not willing to concede further, as he blamed “far-left” protesters and “criminals who looted and ransacked” buildings across France. The country will go to the polls in April 2027.

Meanwhile, the protests continue. In Paris, about a dozen demonstrators blocked the entrance to the Louvre on Monday, leaving tourists milling outside the world’s most-visited museum.

In Spain, housing campaigners have vowed to keep up the pressure on politicians to address soaring costs, announcing plans for a general strike on 11 November.